Inge Brechan

• Gjermunds, Nikita Madeleine; Brechan, Inge; Johnsen, Svein Åge Kjøs & Watten, Reidulf G. (2020). Personality traits in musicians. Current Issues in Personality Psychology. ISSN 2353-4192. 8(2), s. 100–107. doi: 10.5114/cipp.2020.97314. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Gjermunds, Nikita Madeleine; Brechan, Inge; Johnsen, Svein Åge Kjøs & Watten, Reidulf G. (2019). Musicians: Larks, Owls or Hummingbirds? Journal of Circadian Rhythms. ISSN 1740-3391. 17(1). doi: 10.5334/JCR.173. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Brechan, Inge (2017). Effect of Price Reduction and Increased Service Frequency on Public Transport Travel. Journal of Public Transportation. ISSN 1077-291X. 20(1), s. 139–156. doi: 10.5038/2375-0901.20.1.8. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  A random effects meta-analysis of the results from 15 projects involving price reduction and 9 projects involving increased service frequency showed that both price reduction and increased service frequency generated public transport travels. On average, the increased service frequency projects generated more travels by public transport than the price reduction projects. In the increased service frequency projects the proportion of travels generated by the increased frequency was strongly influenced by the size of the frequency increase. In the price reduction projects, we did not find a significant effect of the size of the price reduction on the proportion of travels generated by the price reduction. Finding that people’s use of public transport was related to the extent of the service offered suggests they have a need for transport that can be fulfilled with public transport. Although people appreciate lower fares in general, finding that use of public transport was not significantly related to the size of a price change suggests the effect of price change is uncertain.

• Brechan, Inge (2016). Travel intention: Relative value of transport alternatives. Human Affairs. ISSN 1210-3055. 26(4), s. 390–399. doi: 10.1515/humaff-2016-0033.
• Brechan, Inge & Kvalem, Ingela Lundin (2015). Relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Mediating role of self-esteem and depression. Eating Behaviors. ISSN 1471-0153. 17(1), s. 49–58. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.12.008. Vis sammendrag

  The purpose of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the effect of body dissatisfaction on disordered eating behavior is mediated through self-esteem and depression. If the effect of body dissatisfaction on disordered eating can be explained by self-esteem and depression, treatment may benefit from focusing more on self-esteem and depression than body dissatisfaction. We also hypothesized body image importance to be associatedwith lower self-esteem, stronger symptomsof depression, andmore disordered eating. The results showed that the effect of body dissatisfaction on disorder eating was completely mediated, whereas the effect of body image importance was partly mediated. Both self-esteem and depression were significant mediators. Body image importance and self-esteem had a direct effect on restrained eating and compensatory behavior. Depression had a direct effect on binge eating. This effectwas significantly stronger amongwomen. Depression also had a direct effect on restrained eating. This effect was positive among women, but negative among men. The results support emotion regulation and cognitive behavioral theories of eating disorders, indicating that self-esteemand depression are the most proximal factors, whereas the effect of body dissatisfaction is indirect. The results point out the importance of distinguishing between different symptoms of bulimia. Depression may cause binge eating, but compensatory behavior depends on self-esteemand body image importance. The results suggest that women may turn to both binge eating and restrained eating to escape awareness of negative emotions, whereas men focus on eating to a lesser extent than women. Existing treatment focuses on eating behavior first and mechanisms such as self-esteem and depression second. The results from this study suggest that an earlier focus on self-esteem and depression may be warranted in the treatment of disordered eating.

• Zell, Ethan; Su, Rong; Li, Hong; Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo; Hong, Sungjin & Kumkale, Tarcan [Vis alle 25 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (2013). Cultural Differences in Attitudes Toward Action and Inaction: The Role of Dialecticism. Social Psychological and Personality Science. ISSN 1948-5506. 4(5), s. 521–528. doi: 10.1177/1948550612468774. Vis sammendrag

  The current research examined whether nations differ in their attitudes toward action and inaction. It was anticipated that members of dialectical East Asian societies would show a positive association in their attitudes toward action/inaction. However, members of non-dialectical European-American societies were expected to show a negative association in their attitudes toward action/inaction. Young adults in 19 nations completed measures of dialectical thinking and attitudes toward action/inaction. Results from multi-level modeling showed, as predicted, that people from high dialecticism nations reported a more positive association in their attitudes toward action and inaction than people from low dialecticism nations. Furthermore, these findings remained after controlling for cultural differences in individualism-collectivism, neuroticism, gross-domestic product, and response style. Discussion highlights the implications of these findings for action/inaction goals, dialecticism, and culture.

• Ludvigsen, Johanna; Brechan, Inge & Klæboe, Ronny (2013). Social Support for European Rail Liberalization Policy. Transportation journal. ISSN 0041-1612. 52(2), s. 183–208. doi: 10.5325/transportationj.52.2.0183. Vis sammendrag

  Despite many unmet welfare needs a survey of 2,429 citizens from 10 European Union countries revealed strong support for European freight railways as a means to reduce socioenvironmental harms of motorized transportation, even if this would diminish funds for national necessities. The results disclosed that popular support for European railways was best explained by (1) respondents' belief in railways' ability to reduce truck-induced damage in their local and national communities, (2) the fear of future deterioration of socioenvironmental harms, and (3) strong identification with Europe. However, the willingness to spend national money on European railways was not based on social altruism, but rather on enlightened self-interests understood as a temporal renunciation of other welfare needs for protecting the local and national communities from freight truck transport. These outcomes support the national and European policymakers in spending public means on European railways even if many other domestic necessities remain temporary unmet.

• Hart, William; Albarracín, Dolores; Eagly, Alice Hendrickson; Brechan, Inge; Lindberg, Matthew James & Merrill, Lisa (2009). Feeling Validated Versus Being Correct: A Meta-Analysis of Selective Exposure to Information. Psychological bulletin. ISSN 0033-2909. 135(4), s. 555–588. doi: 10.1037/a0015701. Vis sammendrag

  A meta-analysis assessed whether exposure to information is guided by defense or accuracy motives. The studies examined information preferences in relation to attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in situations that provided choices between congenial information, which supported participants’ pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors, and uncongenial information, which challenged these tendencies. Analyses indicated a moderate preference for congenial over uncongenial information (d = 0.36). As predicted, this congeniality bias was moderated by variables that affect the strength of participants’ defense motivation and accuracy motivation. In support of the importance of defense motivation, the congeniality bias was weaker when participants’ attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors were supported prior to information selection; when participants’ attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors were not relevant to their values or not held with conviction; when the available information was low in quality; when participants’ closed-mindedness was low; and when their confidence in the attitude, belief, or behavior was high. In support of the importance of accuracy motivation, an uncongeniality bias emerged when uncongenial information was relevant to accomplishing a current goal.

• Brechan, Inge (2006). The different effect of primary and secondary product attributes on customer satisfaction. Journal of Economic Psychology. ISSN 0167-4870. 27(3), s. 441–458. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2005.10.003. Vis sammendrag

  The different impact of primary and secondary product attributes on customer satisfaction has received little attention. We propose that primary attributes have a greater impact on satisfaction than secondary attributes, and that the relationship between secondary attribute quality and satisfaction is moderated by primary attribute quality. Both hypotheses were supported by the results of a survey of perceived quality and satisfaction with local public transport. Exploratory analyses indicate that the relationship between secondary attributes and customer satisfaction is regressing, and that secondary attributes are more important for frequent users. The results are discussed in relation to theory of attribute searchability.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin

• Brechan, Inge (2023). Body dissatisfaction and body image importance: Their relationship with disordered eating and exercise.
• Brechan, Inge (2022). Relationship between job design, occupational health, and absenteeism.
• Johnsen, Svein Åge Kjøs; Løhre, Erik; Lappegard Hauge, Åshild; Brechan, Inge; Watten, Reidulf G. & Rydstedt, Leif W [Vis alle 11 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (2019). Psykologifagets klimaløsninger. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. ISSN 0332-6470. 56(10), s. 775–776.
• Brechan, Inge (2019). Impact of person characteristics, job description, and situational job characteristics on job performance: Application of the Triangle Model of Responsibility.
• Brechan, Inge (2018). Implementation intentions strengthens the relationship between behavioral intentions and travel behavior.
• Brechan, Inge (2018). Relationship between body satisfaction and self-esteem: Sociometer theory and domain theory.
• Brechan, Inge (2018). Relationship between body weight and self-esteem. Vis sammendrag

  Background: There has been little scientific support for the popular claim that heavy body weight is associated with low self-esteem. Empirical studies generally indicate only a very modest relationship. The aim of the current study was to test if this could be explained by inconsistent mediation through mechanisms known to predict self-esteem, i.e., weight dissatisfaction, self-consciousness, and social accept. Methods: A survey among 109 female and 74 male university students in Norway provided data that were analysed with regression analysis. Findings: There was no correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and self-esteem, but results from regression analysis indicated that weight (i.e., BMI) might be related to women’s self-esteem in indirect and non-linear ways. There was a direct quadratic relationship, as lighter and heavier women had higher self-esteem. There was a negative indirect relationship through weight dissatisfaction, as heavier women were more dissatisfied with their weight and higher weight dissatisfaction was associated with lower self-esteem. There was a positive indirect relationship through self-consciousness, as heavier women were less self-conscious and lower self-consciousness was associated with higher self-esteem. There was a quadratic indirect relationship through social accept, as lighter and heavier women felt more socially accepted and higher social acceptance was related to higher self-esteem. All four different relationships between weight and women’s self-esteem remained statistically significant when controlling for each other. There was no relationship between weight and men’s self-esteem. Discussion: This study supported the idea that weight may be related to women’s self-esteem, but not in the negative and simplistic way often portrayed. There are both positive and negative indirect relationships and all three well-known predictors of self-esteem (i.e., weight dissatisfaction, self-consciousness, and social accept) were mediators of the indirect relationships. Finding that heavier as well as lighter women had higher self-esteem than women of average weight could be explained as a benefit of distinctiveness. Men’s ideal of a muscular and lean body might explain the lack of relationship between weight and men’s self-esteem. The weight of muscles may be positive for men’s self-esteem, whereas the weight of body fat may not. Men may also base their self-worth on other things than weight to a greater degree than women do.

• Skalík, Jan; Brechan, Inge; Urban, Jan & Chabada, Tomáš (2017). Social Norm Effects on Pro-Environmental Behavior: Case of Cycling Campaign.
• Brechan, Inge (2017). Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behavior: Self-esteem, depression, and over-evaluation of body image.
• Brechan, Inge (2017). Breaking bad habits.
• Brechan, Inge (2017). Travel mode choice: Relative value of transport alternatives. Vis sammendrag

  According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1969), choosing between alternative actions depends on the relative preference among the alternatives rather than the absolute value of each alternative. Thus, choosing to travel by bus is not only dependent on how much you like to travel by bus, but also how much you like to travel by other modes of transport. Brechan (2016) found that the antecedents of behavioral intention in the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) were better predictors of travel intentions when both antecedents and travel intention were operationalized as relative constructs (e.g., attitude toward travelling by bicycle relative to the average attitude toward travelling with each of four different travel modes) rather than absolute constructs (e.g., attitude toward travelling by bicycle). We measured the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior related to commuter travelling (between home and work) in a survey among 229 employees from different companies in Oslo, Norway. Actual commuter travelling were measured with a travel diary, completed during the week following the survey. The data was analyzed with multiple regression analysis and logistic regression analysis. Replicating the findings of Brechan (2016), we found that the antecedents of behavioral intention in the Theory of Planned Behavior were better predictors of travel intentions when both antecedents and travel intention were operationalized as relative constructs rather than absolute constructs. Extending on the study by Brechan (2016), we found that relative travel intention was a significantly better predictor of actual future travel mode choice compared to absolute travel intention when predicting travelling by car and bicycle, but not public transport. Overall, the results support the Theory of Planned Behavior and the idea of relative preference among alternatives in choice situations. Prior research may have underestimated the predictive power of the Theory of Planned Behavior when failing to consider the impact of relative preferences in choice situations. Not finding a significant predictive contribution of relative preference for travelling by public transport, controlling for absolute intention, may be explained by the strong negative kurtosis in the distribution of intention to travel by public transport in this study. Participants’ intention to travel by public transport was mostly either very low or very high. This may be related to the fact that the sample of participants in this study was recruited from workplaces in the center of a large city. If you live in the city and work in the city, public transport services will most likely be highly available. If you live outside the city and work in the city, public transport services will most likely be less available. The practical implication of the results from this study is that politicians, officials, idealists, or anyone interested in influencing people’s travel mode choice must consider not only the value or utility of the targeted travel mode, but also the value of alternative travel modes.

• Brechan, Inge (2017). Closing the gap between intentions and behavior: Implementation intentions and intervention. Vis sammendrag

  Results from a longitudinal study among 1400 public employees in Norway showed that existing plans, intervention of implementation intentions, and the interaction between plans and intervention explained the relationship between intentions and next week commuting (travel mode choice). Intervention had stronger effect if participants did not have concrete plans already.

• Brechan, Inge (2016). Travel mode choice: Relative value of transport alternatives.
• Sætren, Sjur; Brechan, Inge; Andreassen, Marita & Lugo, Ricardo (2016). A further validation of the Resilience Scales for Children and Adolescents.
• Brechan, Inge (2016). Travel intention: Relative value of transport alternatives. Vis sammendrag

  The intention to travel is believed to be the most proximate antecedent of conscious travel behavior (Bamberg & Möser, 2007). However, the travel decision may be perceived as a choice between several alternative behaviors rather than a choice between carrying out a specific behavior or not (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). If this is the case, travel intention is a relative preference among alternatives that may be predicted by the relative subjective value of the alternatives. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, the combined value or utility of a specific behavior can be explained in terms of the attitude towards the behavior, prescriptive behavioral norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). Behavioral intentions may also be influenced by self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) and past behavior (Kidwell & Jewell, 2008). In a survey among 500 persons from the general adult population in Norway, we tested the predictive strength of attitude, norm, control, self-efficacy, and past behavior on intention to travel by four different modes of transport: Car, public transport, bicycle, and on foot. We tested a total of eight regression models, one with absolute measures and one with relative measures for each of the four modes of transport. Using absolute measures, the coefficient of determination (R-squared) ranged from .54 to .72. Using relative measures, the coefficient of determination ranged from .62 to .81. Using relative rather than absolute measures resulted in a higher coefficient of determination for all transport modes, with an increase ranging from .03 to .10. All independent variables were significant predictors of behavioral intention to travel by car. All independent variables except perceived behavioral control were significant predictors of behavioral intention to go by public transport, bicycle, or on foot. Public and non-motorized modes of transport may be perceived as generally available modes of transport, but that vary in the individual effort needed to make use of them. A car may not be available at all, or its availability may be uncertain. The results support the theoretical models of behavioral intention and imply that previous studies using absolute rather than relative measures may have underestimated the strength of the Theory of Planned Behavior, self-efficacy, and past behavior in predicting behavioral intention.

• Brechan, Inge (2015). Congruency between organisational and individual values.
• Brechan, Inge (2015). Travel behaviour intervention.
• Johnsen, Svein Åge Kjøs; Brechan, Inge & Flagstad, Ingeborg Olsdatter (2015). Volkswagen-affæren peker på noe viktig: Bedriftenes manglende miljøkultur. Dagens næringsliv. ISSN 0803-9372.
• Brechan, Inge (2015). The effect of social attention and body satisfaction on self-esteem. Vis sammendrag

  In a survey designed to test the interaction effect of social attention and body satisfaction on self-esteem, we found a quadratic interaction. The effect of social attention on self-esteem is more positive when body satisfaction is either high or low, compared to when body satisfaction is moderate.

• Brechan, Inge (2014). Weight and self-esteem.
• Brechan, Inge (2013). Impact of person characteristics, job description, and situational job characteristics on job performance: Application of the triangle model of responsibility.
• Brechan, Inge (2012). Theory of planned behaviour and travel mode choice: Role of attitude, subjective and descriptive norm, perceived control, and self efficacy. Vis sammendrag

  The theory of planned behaviour has been used to explain travel mode choice. Based on theories of social influence and self efficacy, it has been suggested to include descriptive as well as subjective norm, and self efficacy as well as perceived control. However, the factors may not be independent of each other. Attribution theory suggests we infer people’s attitudes from their behaviour. Self efficacy theory suggests perceptions of control influence self efficacy beliefs. Conceptualizing attitude as an overall evaluation implies that attitude could be based, to some degree, on beliefs about consequences of conforming to norms and the cost or difficulty of actions. In a survey among 229 employees, we measured the factors in the theory of planned behaviour, including descriptive norm and self efficacy, in relation to potential travel modes (car, public transport, and bicycle) on the journey between home and work. All factors were significantly correlated with behavioural intention, but regression analyses showed that only some factors had a direct effect. The effect of descriptive norm was completely mediated through subjective norm and attitude, for all travel modes. The effect of perceived control was completely (public transport and bicycle) or partly (car) mediated through self efficacy and attitude.

• Brechan, Inge & Lanseng, Even Johan (2011). Attribution of Service Failure: The Effect of Locus and Control on Customer Satisfaction and Switching Intention. Vis sammendrag

  A test of Weiner’s attribution model failed to find the proposed effects of locus and control on satisfaction and switching intention after service failure. There was no effect on satisfaction and a reverse effect of locus on switching. Participants were more likely to switch service provider if they had participated in the service production. The effect of satisfaction on switching was large and significantly larger in the low participation/high control and high participation/low control situations compared to the low participation/low control and high participation/high control situations. Results can be explained by the actor-observer effect and threat to a positive self-view.

• Brechan, Inge (2010). Effect of social inclusion and self-esteem on social anxiety and depression. Vis sammendrag

  According to Beck’s (1987) cognitive theory of depression, negative self-evaluation is central to depression. According to Coyne’s (1976) relational theory of depression, perceived lack of social support also contributes to depression. Judgement of self-worth and perceptions of social relations (or lack of social relations) have also been identified as two distinct roots of depression in clinical research (Blatt, 2004). According to sociometer theory the main function of self-esteem is as a meter of social accept (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), thus social accept should be the major and most proximal factor of self-esteem. According to social reward theory (Buss, 1983) people are motivated by two distinct sets of social rewards: Content rewards (social accept) and process rewards (social inclusion). Social inclusion may be an antecedent of social accept, as people infer others’ attitude toward them from others’ behavior toward them (Jones & Davis, 1965). The main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between social inclusion (perception of being incuded by others) and symptoms of depression. Specifically, we want to test to what extent the effect of social inclusion on depression is mediated through social accept (perception of being accepted by others) and self-esteem. Social anxiety has been found to be a predictor of depression (DSM-IV-TR; Stein, Fuetsch, Müller, Höfler, Lieb, & Wittchen, 2001) and is associated with low self-esteem and expectations about being negatively judged by others, i.e. low social accept (DSM-IV-TR; Taylor & Wald, 2003). A second purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between social anxiety and depression, and the relationship between social inclusion and social anxiety. Specifically, we want to test whether the effect of social inclusion on depression is mediated through social anxiety, and to what extent the effect of social inclusion on social anxiety is mediated through social accept and self-esteem. We also wish to compare the results of men and women to see if the hypothesized relationships exist to an equal degree for both genders. We conducted a survey among university students in Oslo resulting in as sample of 132 women and 101 men. Participation was voluntarily and no compensation was given. Participants were given a printed debriefing after completing the questionnaire. The instruments included were Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), Interaction Anxiousness Scale (Leary, 2003), and CES-D 10 (Andresen, Malmgren, Carter, & Patrick, 1994). Social accept and social influence were measured according to Buss’ (1983) description of the content of these concepts. The hypothesized relationships were tested by path analysis of a model including all the propsed relationships using the statistical software Lisrel. The results showed that the effect of social inclusion on self-esteem was partly mediated through social accept. The effect of social inclusion on depression was partly mediated through self-esteem, whereas the effect of social accept on depression was completely mediated through self-esteem. The effect of social inclusion on social anxiety was partly mediated through self-esteem, whereas the effect of social accept on social anxiety was completely mediated through self-esteem. Social anxiety did not have a significant effect on depression when controlling for the effects of social inclusion and self-esteem. There were no significant gender differences in effect sizes. The results suggest that both social anxiety and depression can be caused by both negative self evaluation, as suggested in the cognitve theory, and perceived lack of social inclusion (i.e., social exclusion), as suggested in the relational theory. Furthermore, the relationship between social anxiety and depression may be explained by common antecedents (social inclusion and self-esteem) and does not necessarily imply a causal relationship between the two.

• Brechan, Inge (2010). The effect of social accept and social inclusion on self-esteem. Vis sammendrag

  According to the Sociometer theory the main function of self-esteem is as a meter of social accept (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), thus social accept should be the major and most proximal factor of self-esteem. According to social reward theory (Buss, 1983) people are motivated by two distinct sets of social rewards: Content rewards (e.g., social accept) and process rewards (e.g., social inclusion). Social inclusion may be an antecedent of social accept, as people infer others’ attitude toward them from others’ behavior toward them (Jones & Davis, 1965). In three surveys with student samples (n1 = 185, n2 = 234, n3 = 190) we found from regression analyses that both social accept and social inclusion had a unique contribution to self-esteem, and that the effect of social inclusion was partly mediated through social accept. A Sobel-test indicated that the indirect effect of social inclusion on self-esteem was significant. A t-test showed that women reported lower self-esteem and higher social accept than men. A chi-square test revealed no gender differences in effect sizes. In the second study we added instrumental and emotional social support as explanatory factors and in the third study we included also social attention, but these factors did not contribute to the explanation of self-esteem beyond what could be attributed to social accept and social inclusion. The results support social reward theory, as social inclusion is not merely a more distal factor of self-esteem, but has also a direct contribution beyond what is mediated through social accept.

• Brechan, Inge (2010). Askefast: Hvilke konsekvenser fikk vulkanutbruddet på Island for folk og samfunn.
• Brechan, Inge (2009). Relationship between body image and self-esteem: Domain theory vs. sociometer theory. Vis sammendrag

  In this survey the relationship between body image and self-esteem was partially mediated through social accept, but the direct effect was four times larger and both factors had moderately strong unique effects. The relationship was also moderated by body image importance. The results support domain theory rather than sociometer theory.

• Brechan, Inge (2009). Relationship between body image and depression. Vis sammendrag

  Objectives: Longitudinal studies show body image predicts development of depression. However, in the litterature there is a lack of argument for why poor body image contributes to depression. We wish to test if the association between body image and symptoms of depression can be attributed to two well-known causal factors of depression: Self-esteem and perceived social support, acting as mediators. Methods: We carried out a cross-sectional survey with a student sample and tested the mediated relationship using regression analysis. Results: The results indicate that the effect of body image on depression may be completely mediated through self-esteem and perceived social support. Conclusion: The results support Beck s cognitive theory and Coyne s relational theory regarding the mechanisms by which poor body image may contribute to depression: Because body image has an impact on overall self-worth and because people with a poor body image are more likely to experience lack of social support.

• Brechan, Inge (2009). Identitetsmotiver: Hvilken nytte har vi av identiteten vår?
• Brechan, Inge (2009). Kroppsmisnøye: Hva er problemet og hva kan man gjøre med det?
• Brechan, Inge (2008). Relationship between body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, depression, and disordered eating. Vis sammendrag

  It is well-documented in longitudinal studies that body dissatisfaction predicts development of self-esteem and symptoms of depression and disorderd eating (e.g., Johnson & Wardle, 2005; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2006; Paxton, Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan, & Eisenberg, 2006). Some researchers propose that the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating is mediated by self-esteem and negative affect (Corning, Krumm, & Smitham, 2006; Stice, 2001; Stice, Shaw, & Nemeroff, 1998). Most of the studies investigating the proposed mediating role of self-esteem and negative affect include only female participants, and the one exception failed to find a mediated relationship for men (Womble et al., 2001). Unfortunately, Womble et al. (2001) operationalized negative affect as an index of depression, self-esteem, and neuroticism, so there is still the possibility that either of the three might have a mediating role as an isolated rather than mixed construct. The concept of negative affect is not entirely clear in Stice’s studies either, being operationalized either as a mix of stable traits (i.e., distress, fear, anger) or as a mix temporary states (i.e., sadness, guilt, and fear). The purpose of the study presented here is to investigate the mediating role of self-esteem and depression, rather than the broader concept of negative affect, in the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, for both women and men. Data was collected through a survey among a sample of students (208 women and 112 men) from a large Norwegian university, using well-known measures of body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, and symptoms of depression and disordered eating. The results showed that, for women, the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating was partly mediated through both self-esteem and depression. However, the relationship was not completely mediated – there was still a direct relationship also. For men, neither self-esteem nor depression proved to mediate in the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. There was only a direct effect. The failiure to mediate was due to an insignificant relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem, and to an insignificant relationship between depression and disordered eating. The results are important, as they give support to the proposed role of negative self-esteem and depressed mood in the link between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among women. It is also important though, that there was not a complete mediation, which has been proposed by Stice and colleagues (Stice, 2001; Stice et al., 1998). Body satisfaction (i.e., body evaluation) still had an effect on disordered eating, even when controlling for self-esteem and depressed mood. The most important finding was nevertheless the lack of mediation among men. The results suggest that men may engage in disordered eating as a direct result of negative evaluation of their body, while the negative mood and self evaluation caused by body dissatisfaction partly explains why disordered eating is linked to body dissatisfaction among women.

• Brechan, Inge (2008). Body parts evaluation as body image measurement: A comparison of different sets of body parts and overall body image evaluation. Vis sammendrag

  Body image measurement is criticized for being biased towards aspects more relevant for women than men. In this study we compare body dissatisfaction among men and women, using measures of different sets of body parts and overall body image. We also investigate relationships between different measures of body dissatisfaction and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. In a survey, 242 Norwegian students rated discrepancies between perceived and ideal appearance of several body characteristics and overall body image. Factors representing characteristics of face, weight/lower torso, extremities (hands, feet), and muscles/body build achieved high reliability. Scores differed significantly between factors. Overall body image had the highest dissatisfaction score, then weight/lower torso and muscle/body build (for women, vice versa for men), followed by extremities, and facial characteristics. Women were significantly more dissatisfied than men with weight/lower torso and extremities. All factors were correlated to self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder, but multiple regression analyses showed that only overall body image and dissatisfaction with facial characteristics contributed to self-esteem and depression. Only overall body image and dissatisfaction with weight/lower torso contributed to eating disorder. As different measures give different results, it’s important to choose the appropriate measure for the question at hand. It’s misleading to make claims about body image in general when the measure only relates to a limited part of the body. For some questions it’s useful to focus on a limited and more relevant set of body characteristics, such as dissatisfaction with weight/lower torso in the case of risk for eating disorder.

• Brechan, Inge (2007). Body ideal importance strengthens adverse consequences of negative body image. Vis sammendrag

  Research question: Discrepancies between body image and body ideals, and importance attached to attaining an ideal body, are associated with lower self-esteem and stronger symptoms of depression and disordered eating. It has been suggested that body ideal importance strengthens adverse consequences of a negative body image (Szymanski & Cash, 1995). This hypothesis was tested in two surveys. Method: In both surveys university students (Study 1: 112 men and 208 women; Study 2: 78 men and 178 women) were recruited for voluntary participation and completed questionnaires containing measures of Body Image vs. Ideal Discrepancy, Body Ideal Importance, Self-Esteem, Depression, and Disordered Eating. The hypothesis was tested using multiple regression analysis to estimate the interaction effect, while controlling for main effects of Discrepancy and Importance. Results: Results supported the hypothesis with Self-Esteem and Disordered Eating as dependent variables, using several different measures. The hypothesis was also supported with Depression in study 1, but not in study 2, using a different measure. Although not statistically significant, the interaction effect on Depression in study 2 was in the predicted direction. Conclusion: Body ideal importance strengthens adverse consequences of a negative body image. Health promotion and psychological intervention should focus on reducing importance attached to attaining an ideal body, and lowering unrealistic body ideals. Body image discrepancy and body ideal importance should be considered two distinct concepts. Reference: Szymanski, M. L., & Cash, T. F. (1995). Body-image disturbances and self-discrepancy theory: Expansion of the body-image ideals questionnaire. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 14, 134-146.

• Brechan, Inge (2007). Ungdom og kroppsbilde.
• Brechan, Inge (2006). The relationship between body image, self-esteem and symptoms of depression and disordered eating. Vis sammendrag

  Research has shown that negative body image is associated with low self-esteem and symptoms of depression and disordered eating. According to Stice (2001) the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating is mediated through depression. In a survey among Oslo students we find that negative body image is associated with symptoms of depression and disordered eating. Negative body image is also associated with low self-esteem for females, but not for males. A multiple regression analysis indicates that body image and self-esteem have isolated effects on depression. Another multiple regression analysis indicates that body image, self-esteem and depression have isolated effects on disordered eating, but only for females. For males the analysis show isolated effects of body image and self-esteem, but not depression. To specifically test whether or not the relationship between body image and disordered eating can be accounted for by depression, as indicated by Stice (2001), we conducted another multiple regression analysis, including only body image and depression as independent variables. For females the analysis show isolated effects of body image and depression on disordered eating. For males only body image has an isolated effect. For both genders we conclude that the effect of body image on disordered eating cannot be accounted for by depression. We also conclude that there are important differences between men and women regarding potential consequences of body image and causes of disordered eating. For men self-esteem is less influenced by body image and general symptoms of depression does not contribute to explaining disordered eating.

• Brechan, Inge (2006). Kroppsbilde: Hva er det og hva innebærer det å ha et dårlig kroppsbilde?
• Brechan, Inge (2006). Attitude-behavior relationship: Relative preference among alternative choices and intention concreteness. Vis sammendrag

  Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) argue that the relative preference for one behavioral alternative over other alternatives is a better predictor of behavior than an absolute measure of intention not considering behavioral alternatives. The predictive power of behavioral intention may be improved further by considering the concreteness of the intention. According to Gollwitzer (1990), people are more likely to carry out their intentions if the intention is supported with a concrete plan for carrying out the intention. We tested the two hypotheses by having 220 residents of Oslo, Norway, reporting their intentions to travel to work by car, public transport, or bicycle the following week. Actual choice of transport mode was registered in a diary during the following week. We found that the correlation between relative measures of intention and behavior was higher than the correlation between absolute measures of intention and behavior, for use of car (r[relative]=.92, r[absolute]=.89, q=.17, p=.03), public transport (r[relative]=.87, r[absolute]=.83, q=.14, p=.07), and bicycle (r[relative]=.83, r[absolute]=.70, q=.33, p<.01). Performing a group comparison based on a mean split of intention concreteness, we found that the correlation between the relative measures of intention and behavior was higher in the more concrete intention group compared to the less concrete intention group, for use of car (r[concrete]=.95, r[less concrete]=.83, q=.64, p<.01), public transport (r[concrete]=.90, r[less concrete]=.76, q=.46, p=.01), and bicycle (r[concrete]=.88, r[less concrete]=.73, q=.45, p=.01). Similar and all significant results were also obtained using absolute measures. The results support the hypotheses regarding relative preference among alternative choices and intention concreteness.

• Brechan, Inge (2005). The Effect of Price Reduction and Increased Service Frequency on Public Transport Travel. Vis sammendrag

  A random effects meta-analysis of the results from 15 projects involving price reduction and 9 projects involving increased service frequency showed that both price reduction and increased service frequency generate public transport travels. On average, increased service frequency generated more travels by public transport than price reduction. In the increased service frequency projects the proportion of travels generated by the increased frequency was strongly influenced by the size of the frequency increase. In the price reduction projects we did not find a significant effect of the size of the price reduction on the proportion of travels generated.

• Brechan, Inge (2005). The Effect of Primary and Secondary Product Attributes on Customer Satisfaction. Vis sammendrag

  The distinction between primary (core) and secondary product attributes is well recognized. However, the different impact of primary and secondary attributes on customer satisfaction has received little attention. We tested two hypotheses regarding the impact of primary and secondary attributes on customer satisfaction, based on a survey of attribute quality and customer satisfaction with local public transport. We propose that primary attributes have a greater impact on customer satisfaction compared to secondary attributes. We also propose that the relationship between secondary attribute quality and customer satisfaction is moderated by primary attribute quality. Both hypotheses were supported by the results.

• Brechan, Inge (2004). The reciprocal relationship between attitude and behavior. Vis sammendrag

  The conventional view on the relationship between attitude and behavior is that behavior influences attitude (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). This causal direction is often assumed in consumer decision-making models (e.g. Engel, Kollat & Blackwell, 1968). Another explanation of the association between attitude and behavior is that attitudes are formed based on behavior (Bem, 1967, 1972). There is support for both theories in experimental research (Fazio, Powell & Williams, 1989; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) and they are not mutually exclusive. In the case of established attitudes and repeated behavior several researchers claim that current attitudes are influenced by former attitudes (Bargh, Chaiken, Govender & Pratto, 1992; Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell & Kardes, 1986) and current behavior is influenced by former behavior (Bentler & Speckart, 1979, 1981; Oulette & Wood, 1998; Triandis, 1977) on a cognitive basis. On the basis of the propositions regarding consistency between the past and the present, and between attitude and behavior, we constructed a model presenting a causal relationship between the past and the present and a reciprocal causal relationship between attitude and behavior. The proposed relationships (Attitude time 2 = Attitude time 1 + Behavior time 2, and Behavior time 2 = Behavior time 1 + Attitude time 2) were tested simultaneously using structural equation modeling and longitudinal data (n = 1553) on attitudes towards public transport and choice of transport mode from Norway (general population sample, age above 15 years old). The structural model, as well as the measurement model, achieved satisfactory goodness of fit according to conventional criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The structural model achieved a Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square with 46 Degrees of Freedom of 257.86, an RMSEA of 0.054, and a SRMR of 0.049. The completely standardized solution gave betas of 0.10 and 0.14 for the Attitude-Behavior and the Behavior-Attitude relationships respectively. For the Attitude time 1 – time 2 and the Behavior time 1 – time 2 relationships the gammas were 0.60 and 0.73 respectively. All paths were significant at p < 0.001. R-square for Attitude time 2 and Behavior time 2 were 0.44 and 0.60 respectively. An alternative model of the relationship between attitude and behavior is one where there is no causal relationship between present attitude and present behavior. Instead present attitude and present behavior may both be caused by past attitude and past behavior. The proposed relationships (Attitude time 2 = Attitude time 1 + Behavior time 1, and Behavior time 2 = Behavior time 1 + Attitude time 1) in the alternative model were tested, but this model yielded all over worse results than the original model. The results support the hypothesized reciprocal relationship between attitude and behavior, suggesting that the relationship between attitude and behavior is a mutual adaptation that happens within a short time period rather than being an effect from a more distant past. Any effect from the past is mediated through the tendency of temporal consistency, i.e. present attitude is consistent with past attitude and present behavior is consistent with past behavior. In this study the temporal consistency effects (Attitude time 1 on Attitude time 2 and Behavior time 1 on Behavior time 2) were much stronger than the reciprocal relationship between attitude and behavior. This confirms the proposition of Oulette and Wood (1998), being that temporal consistency will be stronger when the choice to be made is simple, frequent and in a stable context. Choice of transport mode (in this case car vs. public transport) is for many persons a daily routine, i.e. a simple and frequent decision made in a stable context.

• Brechan, Inge (2004). Attitude, control and habit as causes of transport mode choice. Vis sammendrag

  Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg and Moonen (1998) found that the choice of car as transport mode was influenced by the intention to choose car, car availability, and a general tendency to choose car. The general tendency accounted for 6% of the variance (r = .24) and including intention and availability did not contribute much more in explaining the variance (R = .29). Although frequently used as a measure of habit (Oulette & Wood, 1998) the measure of general tendency may represent a general attitude toward the behaviour. Thus, the findings of Verplanken et al (1998) may represent the relationship between a general attitude and a more situation specific behaviour (Epstein 1979). Using structural equation modelling and longitudinal data (n = 1926) on attitudes towards public transport and choice of transport mode we tested a model including attitude, control (car availability) and habit as causes of transport mode choice. Both habit and choice are measured by questions regarding general tendency to choose public transport rather than car, but data for habit is gathered more than 1 year prior to choice. The analysis yielded standardized regression coefficients of .14 (Attitude), .45 (Habit), and -.36 (Control) in the relation between the exogenous variables and transport mode choice, all highly significant (p < .001). The exogenous variables accounted for 58% of the variance and the model achieved satisfactory goodness of fit indexes (RMSEA = .059, SRMR = .045) according to conventional criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The results support the importance of control as an important variable when predicting behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Furthermore, they support Oulette and Woods (1998) claim that the effect of habit on behaviour will be strong when the choice to be made is simple, frequent and in a stable context, as is often the case for choice of transport mode.

• Lodden, Unni Bukkøy & Brechan, Inge (2004). The importance of travel information for use of public transport.
• Brechan, Inge & Dittmar, Helga (2003). Self-discrepancy relevance and its relationship to discrepancy magnitude, identity motives, and negative emotions: A study of body-image self-discrepancies. Vis sammendrag

  In accordance with self-discrepancy theory, body-image self-discrepancies have been found to be associated with negative emotional states. More recently, Higgins (1999) proposed that for self-discrepancies to have an effect they must be considered personally relevant by the individual holding them. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between the magnitude and relevance of body-image self-discrepancies and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, self-discrepancy relevance is proposed to be influenced by the degree to which the discrepancy is associated with self-esteem and other identity motives. Fifty-two students completed a questionnaire including measures of unaided recall of body-image self-discrepancies and magnitude and relevance of the discrepancies. It also included measures of depression and anxiety, and to what degree a reduction of each of the discrepancies would contribute to the identity motives of self-esteem, distinctiveness, continuity, efficacy, purpose, and closeness. Hierarchical regression revealed that the relationship between self-discrepancy magnitude and symptoms of depression and anxiety is completely mediated by discrepancy relevance (depression: B=.67, p<.01, anxiety B=.56, p<.01). Furthermore, the interaction between discrepancy magnitude and relevance proved to be non-significant when controlling for a quadratic effect of discrepancy relevance (depression: B=1.43, p<.01, anxiety B=1.04, p=.09). The contribution of identity motives, as well as self-discrepancy magnitude, to self-discrepancy relevance was evaluated as between-subjects effects, using hierarchical regression, and within-subjects effects, using multilevel regression. In both analyses self-esteem (Bbs=.51, p<.01, Bws=.60, p<.01), efficacy (Bbs=.14, p=.09, Bws=.13, p=.03), and discrepancy magnitude (Bbs=.40, p<.01, Bws=.22, p<.01) contributed to explaining self-discrepancy relevance.

• Brechan, Inge & Lanseng, Even (2002). Expectancy-effect on perception of multi-sensory stimuli. Vis sammendrag

  According to Expectancy theory people tend to perceive stimuli in a top-down manner resulting in a perception bias toward what is expected. Prior research supports the expectancy bias hypothesis, but has been to a large extent limited to visual stimuli. We conducted an experiment with 224 adult women to test for an expectancy-effect in the perception of taste, texture, and appearance of tomatoes. The results showed an expectancy-effect for 5 of the 6 impressions we measured. We conclude that the expectancy-bias phenomenon is not limited to optical impressions, but exists in several different types of impressions.

• Brechan, Inge (2001). The effect of attitudes on memory construction mediated through selective exposure. Vis sammendrag

  Based on the theories of memory construction and selective information processing it was hypothesized that attitudes influence memory construction, the rationale being that the process of memory construction serves the resistance against attitude change. A study was conducted with 105 students not showing a direct effect of attitudes on memory construction, but rather an indirect effect mediated through selective exposure to information. The students chose to be exposed to pro-attitudinal material for a longer time, and the longer exposure time was followed by less false memories from the information.

• Brechan, Inge & Lanseng, Even (2000). Consistency in consumer preferences: Connecting perceptions of the product, the person and the situation in preference schemas. Vis sammendrag

  The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which we may enhance the prediction of actual purchase by conceptualizing personal and situational variables in terms of schema theory. It is argued that consumers combine features from products with situational and personality elements to form preference, and that the resulting preference appears at a different level of aggregation than features related to nominal product categories. To come up with such a conceptualization of preference we emphazise literature on social cognition and categorization theory. Based on a review of this literature, we derive propositions concerning the efficiency of such preference schema. The paper also outlines two studies that may be conducted to examine these propositions.

• Brechan, Inge; Ulvnes, Arne Morten & Lorentzen, Bengt G. (1999). Internal and external factors influencing the organization of relationships in an industrial network: A case study. Vis sammendrag

  The central theme of the paper is the underlying motivation and organization of relationships between companies on different levels in an industrial marketing channel. The research explores the effects of both economical, behavioral, external and internal factors upon the relational structure and its accomplishment. In general, the findings suggest that transactions might be more efficiently organized in a relationship with an external supplier.

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